Chapter One

1.A. What Is the Internet?

The Internet is electronic communication links on a computer-computer basis. It is easy to think of two computers linked together by a cable to form a network (the "net" in Internet), then linked to another network in the next office to make "inter" network communications possible. If you remove the cables and replace them with phone lines, then add approximately 2 million other computers, you have the Internet. So if you have a phone line, a computer, a modem, some software, and an Internet service provider (called a server), any computer can link to any other similarly equipped computer over the Internet anywhere in the world.

The Internet operates with particular kinds of connections carried by phone lines (regular phone lines, fiber optic cables, or wireless communication systems). These connections make electronic communications possible. They are:

If the Internet is an unmanaged series of linked computers, how do you find anything in it? The easiest way to send a letter is to know the address of the recipient. The easiest way to get where you're going on the Internet is to know the URL (Universal Resource Locator). The URL is basically a "path" to a file. (If you don't know precisely what you want, see Chapter 3 and the discussion on search engines and browsers.) URLs were originally created for use only on the World Wide Web , a portion of the Internet, but as they are an easy way to name any resource found on the Internet, their use has grown to include nearly any Internet site.

URLs consist of a (usually long) string of words or letters, separated by colons, dots, and forward slashes. The first letter group indicates the protocol or language the computers are speaking, followed by double slashes. The words after the double slashes identify the hosts address. The single forward slash separates the individual files where the homepages reside. For example, the URLs for the SPO/SEDD and the TCSF homepages are:

The "http" indicates that the resource lies on the World Wide Web (http stands for hypertext transfer protocol. See Section 1.C. for an explanation). The host is CERES, a program of the State of California Resources Agency (the host name or address is, therefore, ceres.ca.gov). Staff at CERES control the computer which stores the homepage files. The next two or three letter groups identify the files necessary to locate and open the homepages, ready for viewing.

In other words, the first part of the address "ceres.ca.gov" is a domain or English equivalent to a digital address on the internet (ie. 204.34.95.203). Under this domain, there is a folder called "tcsf" and in this folder you will find a viewable file called "tcsfhome.html." As more and more resources are on the Internet, the URLs have become very long. It isn't necessary to be able to dissect them, it's only necessary to get the spelling right! If you want to try to see more files in a particular folder try "backing in." This means erase the last file name in the URL but keep the slash. If there isn’t a default file called "index.html" or "welcome.html," the server will provide an index of all files in that folder.

1.A.1. How Did the Internet Get Started?

John R. Levine and Carl Baroudi, in The Internet for Dummies provide a history of the Internet (Levine and Baroudi, The Internet for Dummies, Second Edition, IDG Books, 1994). An abbreviated summary follows.

The Department of Defense began the ARPANET in 1969 to link military contractors. Initially, it linked a very small number of computers, but grew quickly as the research universities involved pushed networking technology. Due to its popularity, ARPANET eventually broke into two separate networks, one for military sites and one for universities. They remained connected by a technology which enables routing between the networks as necessary. The ease of computer systems, and the rapidly advancing technology which made them powerful and fast, fueled the need to communicate between computers and the growth of the two computer networks. By the 1980's, so many users were on line that the networks were swamped.

The National Science Foundation (NSF) stepped in and created NSFNET to support improved university research. NSF created a series of regional networks connected to very powerful computers which run NSFNET for use by research and educational institutions. This system was wildly successful and, with the boom in powerful personal computers, was mimicked by industry. Companies such as IBM and Sprint created their own networks, linked together with the same technology that had originally linked the two networks established by the Department of Defense. By the early 1990's, all of the networks which used a particular type of protocol called the TCP/IP (explanation Chapter 1, page 2) could be accessed via the Internet. Other networks which use other protocols exist for specific purposes. Some of these are: BITNET, SprintMail, MCIMail, CompuServe, etc.

1.B. What Is the World Wide Web?

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a part of the Internet which is based on communication with hypertext or "hypermedia" when the source is not text. (Hypertext is a coding system applied to all types of communication which is easy to find and retrieve. More about this later.) The World Wide Web is a network in that it links computers together; in fact all computers which use the hypertext coding system can join the WWW. It has a body of software, and a set of protocols and conventions. WWW uses hypertext and multimedia techniques to make the web easy for anyone to roam, browse, and contribute to.

1.B.1. What Is a Homepage (Web Page)?

A homepage or web page is a document accessible through the WWW. It operates like a graphical table of contents for a set of information. The content items link to files which contain text or graphics, or to other homepages, or other types of data files like Geographic Information System (GIS) data. It denotes a web site and is the easiest way to establish a presence on the WWW. Many organizations have homepages in the Northern Sierra which offer a variety of information. For example, the SPO/SEDD homepage includes hypertext which, when selected, opens a file describing the agency. Another hypertext link provides a description of the agency's current programs. The TCSF homepage links to information about the organization, teaching sustainability in public schools, and about the program to develop sustainable economic indicators, among others.

A homepage is created using HTML (hypertext markup language) encoding in combination with a regular text file and graphic files. When the homepage is opened, a browser program decodes the text, places the pictures in the correct locations, and displays the homepage as the creator intended. The user can activate links called hypertext links between the homepage and other information by selecting certain icons or highlighted words. The link automatically sends the browser to the correct location and opens the file containing the information you chose. Most browsers provide a graphical interface which lets you go back and forth between the homepage and the linked data with just a mouse click. Chapter 4 includes more about homepages.

1.B.2. Who Can Use the World Wide Web?

You must be on the international TCP/IP network (the Internet) in order to access the WWW. Users access the World Wide Web facilities via a program called a browser, which provides access to the WWW servers. If you do not have a browser on your computer, you may telnet to one at another site: this can be an easy way to start using WWW (see the discussion on Telnet in Chapter 3). Use of a local browser (i.e. one in the memory of your computer) is encouraged since it will provide better performance and better response time.

Programs for accessing WWW servers are available for all types of computers, including Macintosh, PC, and UNIX systems. All these platforms support a simple text browser (called a line mode browser) or those which provide access to non-text data, or graphics. If you are on the Internet, but don't have a WWW browser on your computer, you can still enter the World-Wide Web because several sites offer public interactive access to WWW clients. Chapter 3 describes the popular browser types available.

1.B.3. What Information Is Available?

The WWW contains information on just about anything you could imagine. Over the several years of its explosive growth, nearly every industry and interest group has placed information on the WWW, or is in the process of doing so. More importantly, the WWW links people with the opportunity to communicate, so even if something you need is not now available, asking for it usually produces a result.

It is the intent of this guide to provide access to and help communications between government agencies. At this writing, governments and other organizations are just getting started developing information available on the Internet. Through implementation of the federal grant which stimulated production of this guide, however, many government agencies will create homepages and attach important information. At the completion of the grant, we at SPO/SEDD and TCSF hope to see the following technological capabilities be widespread:

• Easy email communications between government agencies.
• Email access between specific government departments and the general public.
• Homepages for government departments which describe their functions, answer frequently asked questions, identify their organizational structure, conduct business, and offer ways for the public to participate in decision making processes.
• Data transfer between government agencies and between those agencies and the public to facilitate better decisions. This should include text, graphics, and GIS data.

We went scouting around the Internet and found several organizations of interest to the Northern Sierra. They are:

We encourage each participant in Internet training to visit these homepages and see what the Northern Sierra has to offer. To do this, you must first have the basic connection and programs from your Internet provider. You will open the browser program and type in the URL noted above following the prompted commands. The more you see what others are doing, the better idea you will have of the best utilization by your organization.

1.C. What can the Internet do for me?

1.C.1. Business/Work Opportunities.

The Internet creates electronic links by which information can travel long distances very fast. This feature can, and has, changed the way Americans do their jobs. Some of the opportunities for government and business are:

1.C.2. Everyday Tasks (Banking, Shopping, etc.).

Through on-line services and the Internet, many everyday tasks can be completed without leaving your home or office. Electronic bill paying automatically transfers funds from your bank to the originator of the bill. Electronic banking (e-bank and the first virtual bank) will specialize in helping secure internet transactions. Many companies have established on line catalogues which display their products, allowing you to place an order as you would if you called a service representative or mail-order catalog over the telephone.

1.C.3. Education (On Line Classrooms, Adult Literacy, etc.)

In his state-of-the-union speech, 1996, Bill Clinton confirmed the growing use and importance of the Internet in our nation's schools. Internet access to schools opens up broad research possibilities including communication with other classrooms working on the same issues throughout the country and world. In the Northern Sierra, many schools are already on line, or will soon be. The Tahoe Center for a Sustainable Future, in its Sustainability Curriculum Program, is working with four school districts and existing curriculum to develop locally based information which includes building understanding about the interrelatedness of the environment and human well-being issues.

Another educational effort currently underway in our area which takes advantage of the Internet is the literacy project at Net at Two Rivers. This is a joint effort by a number of educational, community network, and literacy experts in Sacramento to develop a literacy coaching tool available over the Internet. Geared for readers at the fifth grade level or higher, this program will give literacy tutors throughout the Sierra another tool to interest adult learners in improving their learning skills.

1.C.4. Entertainment (Games, Chat Lines, etc.)

For many users, "playing around" on the Internet is, in itself, entertainment. Looking for interesting news items or products offered, trying out the latest browsing software, or participating in chat lines or newsgroups can be very distracting. The authors of this guide can attest that an hour "surfing" the Internet can go by very quickly. However, the Internet also offers features specifically designed to entertain. Games exist on line which can be downloaded and played on your computer. If you have the right equipment, video images can be transmitted and the ability to watch TV or movies on your monitor is not very far in the future.

1.C.5. The Internet Isn't Fool Proof

So far, this sounds like a dream world. But of course no technological tool is fool proof. In fact, the more we come to rely on tools like these, the more frustrating our lives become when they don't work. The copy machine that doesn't work more often than it does comes to mind. At the very basic level, every new user should approach the Internet with a desire to learn and a certain amount of tolerance for figuring out the bugs. Take advantage of training courses offered and choose hardware, software, and an Internet provider with product support in mind. In fact, we recommend that beginners consider good product support as the most critical criteria to look for in an Internet system.

Beyond the basic system, there are just some things the Internet can't do very well right now. For example, without translation programs, the Internet supports very few font styles. That makes formatting simple messages with email programs difficult. Also, the Internet works only as well as the skills of the people trying to use it. Because it is full of jargon and fairly technically based, the learning curve for many users is difficult to master. And finally, the Internet is currently a tool for the educated and motivated. This reduces its usefulness for many members of our society. It's fair to say that the interest in the Internet has stimulated the energy of thousands of computer experts to make the system more flexible, easier to use, and more accessible to all.

1.D. How Do I Get Started?

Before connecting to the Internet, you should have some idea of how you want to use it. If you are really only interested in email, then a slow modem and simple connection may be all you need. Be careful not to restrict your system too much, however. As you become more comfortable and more familiar with the Internet, you may want to expand its use and, if you have only the very basic setup, you may not be able to take advantage of much of what the Internet offers. This section describes the basic elements you will need and recommends the minimum standards to operate on the Internet.

1.D.1. Basic equipment needed.

Computer. Every user on the Internet starts with a computer.

Modem.

Modem is a word born out of the combination of two words: Modulator / Demodulator. Modems are no more than an extension to a computer, designed to use ordinary telephone lines to carry digital computer data. Computers are all digital inside. (Which means they use a series of on’s and off’s to transfer information. This is binary code and it is the root of all computation and communication in the digital world.) There is hardly any analog logic used. This is convenient, since it makes it possible for the machine to deal with great amounts of data at high speeds. Phone lines on the other hand, are analog by definition. They were designed to carry Voice traffic, which was being transformed into an electrical signal by a microphone. This signal is analog, and therefore the phone line is analog. To make something digital talk over an analog line, you need to do 'something' to the digital signal. In a computer for example, a digital signal is represented by the presence or lack of an electrical current. Over a phone line, this cannot be done. However, if you have a way to make this current into a tone, you could make an analog representation of the digital data. Since the phone line was designed to carry tones, you should thus be able to carry digital data in the form of analog tones. A modem, then, reads the computer's 'digital' signals, and makes them into tones. These tones are sent over the phone line. The modem on the other end listens; it picks up the tones and transforms them back into digital signals that get sent to a computer.

Four parameters define the essence of the modem link, including how fast, how many data bits, what parity (number of errors), and how many stop bits. The technological hurdle was how to send more data faster over a phone line with built in restrictions on this capacity. The simple answer is that more than one tone at a time can be sent (measured in "Baud " rate) and that more than one bit can be sent in every baud. On a 2400 bit line, there are 4 frequencies in use: Originate 0, originate 1, Receive 0, Receive 1. Each may change up to 2400 times a second. On a 9600 bps (bit per second) line, the number of changes is the same; there are, however, more originate and send channels, 4 to be exact, which are all used simultaneously. Of course, this means there are more different frequencies on the line at each time, and that means the line needs to be 'cleaner.'

The cleanest part of a line is 'in the middle' (in the 1500-300 Hertz range), which is where 9600 bps and lower speed modems have all their frequencies mapped. The higher you try to get your speed, the more you will get into the range of the noise on your line. 14,400 (or 14.4) is more or less sensitive to this. 28,800 (or 28.8), since it uses most of the frequencies available, most certainly is. The more speed on the lines causes more errors sooner. An error correction protocol exists to control this. Modem designers built circuitry in the modem that measures on a phone line how it responds to certain frequencies; some may need to be sent a little louder, some a little less loud. And on some lines, there may be frequencies that can not be used at all. This protocol allows modems to decide which frequencies to use.

We recommend all users seriously thinking about Internet use to purchase at least a 14.4 modem. In most places, local Internet providers can serve this speed and error correction protocols work to prevent most data losses. If you are considering transferring large data files (e.g. large graphic files or GIS), we recommend a 28.8 modem. The connection for this modem may be more expensive for a short time, although most local providers are rapidly creating local dial-ups at this speed. In the last six months, prices on both of these modems have dropped considerably, making them affordable.

So what happens when you use your modem? The Caller (the side we call the Originate) calls out, the other side (the Answer side) rings and picks up. Answer will send the Modem tone, then it will send an unmodulated carrier. The Originate modem will listen, and wait until it hears a carrier it knows. When it does so, it will also send out a carrier. To us, we have so far: dialing, ringing, high tone with dips in it, higher continuous tone, static. Now, the Answer will do the same, and we have two carriers. Next, the modems will query each other about their capabilities. The Answer will add all carriers it can; Originate will hear this and answer with all carriers it knows. In some protocols, this is heard as a series of beeps going from low to high, in some others it just appears there is another burst of static. Carriers that remain unanswered will be dropped. A 14.4 modem for example, dialing into a 28.8 modem, will only recognize and answer the 14.4 carriers. The 28.8 modem will drop the rest and they will start talking at 14.4. Depending on the line quality, some carriers may not be heard, this is how strange speeds like 21600 bps come to be.

Now that the modems are talking, they will go through the Adoptive Equalization stage. You hear this as a short low buzz, followed by a lower hiss, then another beep and a higher hiss, then another beep and the 'normal sounding hiss.' During these stages, the modems have measured the quality of the line. They will change how they transmit to compensate for line imperfections.

If all goes well, the speaker will now shutup. The modems have now successfully managed to talk to each other. The two modems will shortly arrive at a mutual conclusion and are ready to start sending and receiving data. Some modems wait until this point to turn on carrier detect. This entire process the modems go through to build up a connection is referred to as handshaking.

The modems will now talk until the connection is broken, or until things go wrong.

1.D.2. Internet Service Provider.

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company that provides you with service to the Internet. It acts very much like a local cable TV company, hooking your TV to a network which carries the channels you want to see. But the ISP does not restrict access to predetermined places on the Internet and once connected, each user has unrestricted access to public sites. (Very recent congressional debate and actions by CompuServe have questioned this situation, yet it is true for virtually all Internet users.) Two primary types of ISPs exist; national information services and local dial-up Internet providers.

• Acknowledgments
• Chapter 1 - Internet Overview
• Chapter 2 - Electronic Mail and Other Communication
• Chapter 3 - Finding Information on the Internet and World Wide Web
• Chapter 4 - Putting Your Information On Line
• Glossary of Terms
• Appendix A - Local Internet Service Providers
• Appendix B - More Information
• Bibliography

Last Update May 8, 1997